A Brief Note On Wealth And Income Inequality Essay

Wealth and Income Inequality in America: Bridging the Gap Wealth and income inequality in America has progressively gotten worse. The recession in 2007 did not help to reduce the gap between the two either. Wealth is determined by everything a person owns and income is determined by how much a person makes at their job. The better the job a person has, the more income they have and this helps to increase their overall wealth. Wealth and income inequality can be reduced by lowering the cost of higher education, implementing a progressive tax, working with one another to end the stigma of the color of one’s skin, deportation of illegal immigrants, and by putting an end to the gender wage gap. Reducing the costs associated with furthering one’s education would make it possible for anyone who wishes to further their education to do so. Most high paying jobs require the employee to have a degree of some sort. In many cases having a degree gives a person an overall advantage or edge when applying for a job. Some employers will forgo the experience over education because it can be viewed that the employee is dedicated because they made a serious commitment and took the time to further their education. Making college affordable for all would make it so everyone would have the same advantages in the job market. A person’s education determines their wages. The higher the education, the greater the opportunity to seek a higher paying job. A statistical article â€Å"It GetsShow MoreRelatedJust Plain Data Analysis : Measuring Racial And Ethnic Inequality991 Words   |  4 Pages Just Plain Data Analysis: Measuring Racial and Ethnic Inequality Measuring racial and ethnic equality is not a simple or straightforward task. As Gary M. 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Test Incentives For Organ Donations - 1027 Words

No one wants to voluntarily sign up for an unnecessary surgery, which is why there is a five to ten year wait limit for an organ donation. The New York Times Article â€Å"Test Incentives for Organ Donations – There’s No Reason Not To,† written by Sally Satel, states that in order to raise the number of donations, people should be rewarded (Satel). Based on the statistics Satel provides, she says altruism is not producing enough donations. Instead, she believes the government should offer some form of incentive to lure people into doing a good deed (Satel). Satel’s article does develop solid points to teach readers about her topic effectively while simultaneously providing evidence to endorse her argument. She gets her purpose across by†¦show more content†¦She productively argues that not enough deceased donations will be enough to satisfy the wait limit (Satel). Satel’s purpose here is to let her readers know that patients in need o f a transplant do not have all the time in the world to wait for someone to save their life. She wants people to understand that waiting until death to donate organs kills others in the process of time. Not enough people die a day that actually qualify as organ donors to help the 100,000 people on the wait list (Satel). Satel uses this information as evidence as to why we need incentives for people to donate their organs; there is simply not enough willing participants that want to save another person’s life. Satel’s purpose was to inform readers of the crucial need of organ donors, which she believes can be solved by incentives (Satel). She managed this argument effectively by connecting the problem to someone’s reality while addressing the issue with practical evidence. Since her purpose was executed flawlessly, so was her evidence. Every new issue that was brought up had supporting information that validated it. She admitted that many people would assu me incentives for organ donations would just act as another way for the rich to feed off the poor. To counter that, she says, â€Å"the demographics of the waiting list indicate that recipients, themselves, are likely to be low-income† (Satel). Her next piece of evidence states that young people would also be interested

Bharatnatyam Free Essays

Introduction to Semiotics Bharatanatyam A journey from temples to the proscenium An introduction Bharatanatyam is a Sanskrit word, which means the dance of Bharata (India). True to its name, it is one of the oldest and most popular dance forms of India. It originated in the temples of Southern India and was later codified and documented as a performing art by the Tanjore Quartet. We will write a custom essay sample on Bharatnatyam or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is now the most popular Indian classical dance and is appreciated worldwide. Bharatanatyam is a language in itself. Like Sanskrit language, bharatanatyam follows strict rules and is technically sound. The grammar of the steps is followed rigorously. It is danced to Carnatic music and the mathematical precision of the dance equals the Carnatic music measure of measure. The three significant ingredients of bharatanatyam are: bhava (emotion), raga (music) and taal (rhythm); governed by Bharata muni’s Natya Shastra and Nandikeshwar’s Abhinaya Darpana. Hence, the interpretation BHAva +  RAga (music) +  TAla+  NATYAM(dance) =  Bharatanatyam. The technique and presentation â€Å"Bharatanatyam in its highest moment, is the embodiment of music in a visual form† -Balasaraswati The three major attributes of a Bharatanatyam performance are Nritta (technique), Nritya and Natya (drama). Nritta is pure dance. It is the movement of hands and feet on the rhythm and speed. It is a collage of rhythmic lines, forms and shapes. The movements, mudras or gestures do not signify anything. Then why nritta? Indian music and dance forms are based on the concept of cyclic rhythm or taal. Various musical patterns are woven with the musical notes and rhythmic patterns which can be beautifully executed through nritta. Nritya is interpretative dance. It is used to exhibit the underlying meaning of the song and the emotion attached with it. It is a combination of nritta and abhinaya or expressions. The meaning of the song is expressed systematic gesture language and facial expressions. Natya is equivalent to dance-drama. It is a language of gestures, poses, dialogues and mime. It depicts a story usually from the Indian mythology like Ramayan or Mahabharata. Here, the emphasis is majorly on abhinaya or expression rather than the rhythmic movements. The Abinaya is divided as: Angikabhinaya:  Expression through the limbs and body like the Head, Hands, and Legs. Vachikabhinaya:  Expression through narrations and voice. Aharyabhinaya:  Expression through dress, ornaments and other aids. Satvikabhinaya: Mental expression of feeling and emotion by facial expression and use of eyes. Bharatanatyam: The Journey The journey of bharatnatyam from the temples of south India to the proscenium of the world is a very exciting one. Dasi-attam (Origin and decline) Bharatnatyam as a very ancient and traditional art form has been associated with the temples of South India. It is believed that Bharatnatyam used to be known as the â€Å"temple dance†. Bharatnatyam was also known as the dasi-attam (dance performed by the dasis – the servants of God) or the sadir-attam (court dance). It was choreographed to be performed solo by the devadasis in the temples as an offering to the deities. These women, called devadasis, are said to have devoted their lives to God. They were considered to be united with the Gods. Infact, they were considered so close to the gods and so pure, that a pearl form their necklace was considered auspicious for the mangalsutra of a woman. They performed useful functions at temples like cleaning, lighting lamps, dressing the deities etc. They also sang devotional songs and danced in devotion to the deities. Apart from this, they taught music and dance to young girls. These devadasis were accomplished artistes who could play many musical instruments. They were well versed in Sanskrit and other languages, which helped them to interpret the compositions that they would perform. They were instrumental in developing a tradition of classical music and dance in South India. The devadasis were celibate and were not allowed to have a family as they were considered to be married to the Gods. Therefore, initially most of the dances in Bharatnatyam were choreographed to be in praise of God. Many padams (narrative pieces) depicted the love story of a nayak (hero) and a nayika (heroine). In most cases, the nayak was in the form of Lord Krishna, or Shiva or any other mythological hero. While Shiva was said to be serious, Krishna was full of pathos and love. Thus, the choreographies mainly concentrated on Sringara rasa (love). Gradually the devadasi system started getting plagued with several notorious ills. Around this time, it was customary for the Indian people hailing from royal or aristocratic families to invite a devadasi to a celebration, to sing and dance and perform. The best dancers were invited to the royal courts to perform, in return which they were provided with a shelter. In this period, the position of the devadasis could be compared to that of an apsara (celestial nymph) who danced in the courts of the Gods in order to please them. Eventually, the rich men and the aristocrats attracted the devadasis with good money and luxurious lifestyles and lured them into being their mistresses. The devadasis were easily enticed to the kind of lifestyle offered to them. Thus, the sringara rasa in their choreographies converted into eroticism and they danced merely to appease the rich men. As consequence of which, these devadasis who were held at par with the temple priests lost their respect in the society. By this time, the Europeans had arrived to India. Their advent was like addition of fuel to the fire of the already deteriorating dance form. The Europeans ridiculed this entire system of dancing to please the lords and considered this to be no better than prostitution. Under the British rule, propaganda prevailed to against Indian art, misinterpreting it as crude and immoral. Also other factors like loss of patronage due to the unstable political conditions, lack of recognition in the education system and lack of appreciation as compared to that given to ballet ; played a major role in the set back of the dance form. Due to the degenerated status of the devadasis, the Indian reformers started a movement against the devadasis. Thus the devadasi tradition was banned. The government started working with various non-governmental organizations to help reinstate these women into the society, as well as raise public awareness of the demeaning nature of their life work Thus, the devadasi tradition and with it the performing art (bharatanatyam) took a back seat in the history of Indian art and culture. Revival Against all odds, a few families preserved the knowledge of this dance form. These included individuals from varied backgrounds: Indian freedom fighters, Westerners interested in Indian arts, people outside the  devadasi  class who learnt Bharatanatyam, and  devadasis  themselves. The pioneers in reviving this art for are: E. Krishna Iyer, Rukmini Devi, Balasaraswati etc. Bharatanatyam now attracted young artists from respectable  Brahmin  families. Initially met with shock, their participation ultimately helped to shift public opinion in favor of reviving the art. An association of  devadasis  joined the effort to revive Bharatanatyam. Its ranks included an eventual teacher of Rukmini Devi’s, as well as the family of the legendary dancer Balasaraswati. Rukmini Devi’s debut performance in 1935 was a milestone. Her efforts won over much of the orthodox community of Madras. Her reforms of costume, stage setting, repertoire, introduction of dance drama,musical accompaniment, and thematic content, overcame the objections of conservatives that Bharatanatyam was vulgar. She went on to found the Kalakshetra institute, to which she attracted many great artists and musicians, with whom she trained generations of dancers. Balasaraswati promoted the traditional art of the  devadasis, maintaining that reforms were unnecessary and detracted from the art. Staying true to her  devadasi  lineage, she achieved great renown for her excellence. The renewed awareness of Bharatanatyam in Indian society allowed many nattuvanars  to resume their training activities, and many artists to enter the field of classical dance. Rukmini Devi’s desire to restore the full spiritual potential of the dance motivated reforms that led to what was known as the Kalakshetra style of Bharatanatyam. Bharatanatyam soon became the most widespread and popular of the Indian classical dance forms. It wasn’t long before it achieved international recognition as one of India’s treasures. Rukmini Devi versus Balasaraswati Differences in the similarity of trying to revive the Indian traditional art form The two towering figures that played a major role in the revival of das-attam as bharatantyam: Tanjore Balasaraswati and Rukmini Devi. Balasaraswati was affiliated with the school known as Tanjore court style while Rukmini devi was associated with a style that she developed at Kalakshetra. By focusing on these two dancers, we can throw light on the historical event of the upgradation of bharatanatyam. They were contemporaries. Balasaraswati gave her first performance in 1925 in a temple and Rukmini Devi gave her first performance in 1935 for the Theosophical Society’s anniversary celebration. Both performed Bharatanatyam regularly on concert stage and considered it a means of salvaging the endangered dance form. In the Indian dance world, both of them are legendary figures. Their names have become synonymous to classicism and traditionalism. Around both of them instructional communities have developed, which led to idea of development of various styles in Bharatnatyam. They led on to take Bharatnatyam on a whole new international level, in their own way. Despite the similarities and the oneness in the agenda of working for the up gradation of the lost dance form, the difference in their ideologies held them in opposition – which has affected the background of Bharatanatyam ever since. Rukmini Devi was a Brahmin who was married to an English Theosophist, George Arundale at the age of sixteen. She came in contact with the famous ballet dancer, Anna Pavlova who accepted her as a student. Pavlova later suggested Rukmini Devi to train in her ‘own dance from’. Following her advice, Rukmini Devi returned to Madras and trained under a traditional guru in the classical dance form, Bharatanatyam. She defied the orthodox custom that upper and middle class girls should not learn dance and set up Kalakshetra to train dancers from the upper and middle class families. The establishment of Kalakshetra played an important role in bringing Bharatanatyam from the temples to the concert stage. Balasaraswati on the other hand hailed from a family of devadasis. She was born in a lineage of women who were associated with the Tanjore music and dance since generations. Her mother and grandmother wanted her to become musician considering the social stigma linked to dance at that time but she decided to become a dancer against all odds. She gave her first performance, arangetram at the temple of Ammanakshi in Kanchipuram, marking the beginning of her legendary career. Rukmini Devi Rukmini Devi entered and Balasaraswati had carved their positions in the world of dance with a radically different perspectives. Rukmini Devi had a very clear goal of purifying the dance form. According to her, the dance form was precious but degraded because its reigns were in the hands of people with ‘ill repute’. She wanted to eradicate the stigma associated with it by passing it on to the hands of people from the upper or middle class. She thought that everything about Bharatnatyam needed to be purified so that it could regain its respectable position in the society. Also, she believed that the main reason for the degradation of this art form was the fact that sringara rasa (love) was the centre of the choreographies. The sringara rasa had led to the degeneration of the art form as introduced eroticism and sexuality in the art to the extent to make it vulgar. â€Å"To depict such things is unthinkable for me†, she said. She was not against the sringara rasa as such (she had performed love poems by jayadeva and kalidasa in her natya), but against the choreographies performed by the devadasi. The actions, mudras and movements included by them in their choreographies had become earthy from beautiful. She strived hard to replace the sringara rasa by bhakti rasa or ‘devotionalism’; devoid of any sexual referrant. Bhakti Rasa Rukmini Devi held Bharatnatyam as a national art form and worked towards its purification and propagating this art form in India and the rest of the world. She established the Kalakshetra – international school of performing arts, to fulfil her goals. Here, students from various upper and middle classes were trained in Bharatnataym and also some other dance forms. She also set up a theatre which gave a platform to her students and also to her innovations in the dance form. Thus, she made reforms to take Bharatnatyam to a whole new international level. Balasaraswati Balsaraswati on the other hand, was very proud of her mother, grandmother and her devadasi ancestors. She was very proud of the achievements of the devadasis in the world of Bharatnatyam. Unlike Devi, she fore grounded the South Indian nativity and stood by the Tamil roots associated with the dance form. She advocated preserving the tradition, and also keeping it in the hands of the  devadasi  community. Her argument was that the art would die if separated from the caste. She believed that Bharatnatyam was in its purest form and it required no modernization or reformation. At many occasions she reprobated efforts to purify the dance form saying. â€Å"Indeed the effort to purify bharatanatyam is like putting gloss on a burnished gold or painting a lotus†. This proves how high Balasaraswati’s respect and love for Bharatanatyam (in its existing form) was. She urged to adhere to the custom of Bharatnatyam being performed in temples and courts. She also urged taking Bharatnatyam on the concert stage. This gave a new dimension to the revival of the dance form. She also defended the maintenance of originality of the dance form, by supporting the long, solo performances being an important component of the dance form. She emphasized the importance of such elements in to context to maintain classicism, integrity and aestheticism of the dance form. She also believed that abiding by the Tanjore Quartet’s format was an important way of honouring the contributions of the court practitioners. Sringara Rasa Balasaraswati was particularly critical of the reformers who believed in transforming the sringara rasa of the form. She was quoted as saying, â€Å"Sringara is bhakti and bhakti is sringara†. She believed that there is an intricate relationship between the expression of love (sringara) and feeling of devotion (bhakti). She believed that sringara is the supreme emotion and that no other emotion could express so beautifully the mystic union of atma (soul) and the paramatma (The almighty). This rasa gives the dancer a wide scope of introducing artistic innovation from within herself. Balasarswati thus, believed that she was entrusted with the task of safeguarding the dance form by not allowing it to be modernized and easily accessible for corruption. In spite of all the discouragement faced from the world, she continued to protect the dance form, the purity and the originality of the dance form. A similarity in the differences In spite of all the difference and such radically opposite perspectives, both Rukmini Devi and Balasaraswati had the same agenda- of saving the dying dance form. They both strived in their own way to protect the dance form and to take it to a whole new level. Their efforts in bringing Bharatnatyam to the concert stage or proscenium against all the opposition and hurdles from the society are commendable. A choreographer should be thankful to the endeavours of these two torchbearers towards the revival of the Bharatnatyam. History was therefore selective. Rukmini Devi and Balasaraswati presented their understandings by emphasizing on some aspects and eschewing the others. How to cite Bharatnatyam, Papers

Static Timing Analysis free essay sample

With  designs becoming increasingly complex  by the day and transistor geometries shrinking, almost all the functional domains across SoC design teams are having a hard time to signoff their functions and Static Timing Analysis (STA) timing closure is also no exception. STA Timing closure is always an important and critical part of SoC design and lower technology nodes have only compounded the challenges for  STA teams. As the VLSI industry has entered  the epoch of a lower technology node,  diminishing transistor sizes and interconnect lengths have disturbed the ratio of cell and interconnect delays. This leads to requirement of signing off the SoC at multiple corners. After timing signoff at multiple Processes, Voltage, Temperature (PVT) corners, the silicon fabricated at submicron technology nodes shows appreciable increase in yield in terms of meeting timing specifications of the design. However, timing closure at multiple PVT corners is in itself a huge challenge for the physical design team. This article will discuss these challenges and touch upon methodologies available to overcome them. We will discuss in detail, our solution to reduce the number of optimization corners in order to achieve efficient and coherent timing closure in minimum time. But before this, let us discuss in brief, the need to have multiple PVT corners for timing signoff. Cell delays and interconnect delays are governed by manufacturing Process (P), operating Voltage (V) and ambient Temperature (T) properties of dies. These factors determine the physical properties of cells and interconnect like W/L ratio of cells and Resistance (R) and Capacitance (C) value of interconnects. At the 180-nm technology node and above, timing signoff at worst and best standard cell PVT corners with 2 RC extraction corners, namely, Cmax Rmin (Cmax)   , and Cmin Rmax ( Cmin) was sufficient. On similar lines at 90 nm node 2 additional process corners Best Hot (Best process, Voltage at max temperature) and Worst cold (Worst process, voltage at min temperature) were introduced for the robust timing signoff, specifically for hold timing signoff as hold is skew dependent . The RC corners for these 2 process corners were similarly Cmax at min temperature and Cmin at max temperature respectively. In 90-nm technology and above, a timing path is predominantly governed by cell delays. However below 90nm node, the contribution of interconnect delay in a timing path is significant and the Coupling Cap component (Cc) in net delay can significantly alter slack values at an endpoint of a timing path. In all we have 4 X 4 = 16 corners for a single Timing Mode/View. If we have 8 STA modes for a design, then in all we have 8 X16 = 128 runs for the design. The first solution to avoid such an enervating analysis for a single mode is to look for a corner that forms a superset of the reset of corners. However a graphical distribution of slack values for a design block across all the 16 corners shows that none of the 16 corners was a complete superset over the others, thereby leaving us with no other option but to signoff the design at 16 corners. A silver lining amid all challenges  listed above is that the situation is not that bad for setup timing analysis. Setup timing violations are primarily dependent on the delay of the timing path (cell delays and interconnect delays, combinational and sequential arcs). These delays are significantly different for cell PVT corners (worst corners have delays considerably greater than the best corners) . For setup timing where worst corners are a complete superset over the best corners, the choice is between worst cold and worst hot standard cell corners to find out most critical corner for setup analysis. Conventionally, worst hot corner has more delays but at lower technology nodes, worst cold can have more delays because the threshold voltage of MOS comes into picture and transistor gets slower at lower temperature due to temperature inversion phenomena). When it comes to RC extraction corners, cmin is never more critical than other 3 RC corners. So for multi mode multi corner optimization for setup we can select 2 worst corner cell corners and cmax RC extraction corner (xtalk corner also if necessary) for meeting most of the setup paths in the design. But the situation is completely different for Hold Timing. As hold is skew driven, it is very difficult to judge which combination of process cell corner and RC extraction corner out of the 16 combinations would have most of the hold violations in the design. As the slack distribution plots for hold violations show, none of the 16 combination is a superset over the other (4 plots have been shown here for convenience). The challenge is to find the optimum number of optimization corners so as to ensure that appreciable numbers of violations are fixed ithout compromising the memory and runtime requirements of timing and placement tool. This task becomes more daunting as extraction corners depend heavily on design layout. Even in the same design, different blocks are found to have different RC combinations that yield maximum violations, and so is the case across different designs. The graphs shown below represent slack distribution of? a design in   two different RC Corners while keeping cell corner common. Here each graph shows the slack at each endpoint for the corner combination specified in x and y axis. The frequency of blue dots both above and below the unity slope line indicates that some  endpoints are more critical for x axis corner while an equally considerable  number are more critical for y axis  corner. Thus no RC corner is superset over other RC corner. So our focus here is to find   a generic approach that help us in deciding few optimization corners out of all signoff corners such that by fixing timing violations in only these few corners   by   APR tool,   most of the timing violations are fixed in one go. Our methodology is to find the optimum number of corners for hold timing signoff and Multi Mode Multi Corner hold optimization. We took 2 design blocks and did a comprehensive hold analysis across all 16 corners individually. It isn’t necessary that selecting the top most critical corners for optimization would solve this issue but instead we can look for finding out corner that have the maximum common violations with   the other 15 corners . The magnitude of violations could be taken care by adding extra pessimism in the optimization runs through uncertainties. 1. For this we prepared a 16 X 16 matrix where an element of the matrix m (i,j) showed the number of common violations between ith  and   jth combination corner. . In the next step we considered one  best process corner, among the 8  (highlighted in blue color) having   most number of common violations with   each of the 8 worst process corners,   for example best xtalk (in blue)   has the   maximum number of common violations with each of   the 8 worst corners and similarly we considered one worst   process corner, among the 8 (highlighted in purple) having most number of common violations with each of the   8 best cases. As shown in the figure worst cold xtalk (in purple) has the maximum number of common violations with each of the 8 best corners. Please note that this case can be already covered under Step 2 listed above but in our case violations in worst process and best process violations were not correlating. In some designs one of best corner can have most common number of violations with worst corner and can be marked with different color code. Now for each row/column the corner with the maximum number of red,green and (blue/puple) elements would be out best choice for hold optimization. In our case, this gave us the hold optimization corners as â€Å"best xtalk† and â€Å"worst cold   xtalk†. After that we fixed hold violations in these two corners best xtalk and worst cold xtalk. Again a 16 X 16 matrix was made with the same rules as the first. Corners fixed : Best cmin and worst cold xtalk Again step 2 was followed and this time the worst corner with maximum common violations was found to best cmin. The first 2 set of fixes plus a third set of fixes on best cmin were sourced across all corners to give us extremely positive results. Corners fixed : Best cmin ,Worst_cold_xtalk, Best Xtalk Observation : The matrix formed after this third level of hold fixing showed us that on an average more than 98 % of each of the 16 corners ‘s original violations were found to be fixed. The only violations remaining were the uncommon or mutually exclusive violations. We were able to narrow down from 16 corners to 3 corners which can be a part of the MMMC hold optimization thereby reducing tool run time/memory requirement and also reducing the number of hold violations to a far extent. The exercise can be repeated further to improve the percentage of fixed hold violations. The same methodology can be extended across multiple STA modes also to find mode and corner combinations having most common violations among multiple modes and multiple corners.

The Biological Basis of Sleep

Introduction Sleep is a mental and physical state in which one becomes inactive and unconscious of the environment around him or her (Borbà ©ly, 2003). In the real sense sleep is just a partial disconnection from the world in which outside stimuli are obstructed from the senses. Normal sleep is indentified by a general reduction in most of the body functions including blood pressure, temperature, and the breathing rate. This is contrast to the human brain that never reduces in activity.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Biological Basis of Sleep specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The brain is always active whenever a person is a wake or a sleep (Berger, 2007). A normal human being sleeps for eight hours. These eight hours are divided into two equal parts. The first part is the rapid eye movement, and the second is the non-rapid eye movement. The two parts form a cycle (Ishimori, 2004). The intention of this pape r is to look at the basis of sleep in relation to the biological mechanisms that cause people to sleep and stay awake. History of Sleep The history of sleep is believed to have been introduced by a psychologist professor at the University of Nagoya in Japan about one hundred years ago (Bayliss, 2006). The psychologist proposed a theory that explains the concept of sleep regulation. Kuniomi Ishimori and Heni Pieron neuroscientist state that, a hormonal chemical and not the neural network (Ishimori, 2004) cause sleep regulation. In earlier researches, researchers took some samples that were sterilized and dialyzed from dogs that had sleep then injected to the brains of the dogs that had no sleep. The dogs that received these samples fell after a short time. The scientists went ahead and took samples from normal dogs that did not have any sleep then introduced into the brains of other normal dogs without any sleep (Berger, 2007). The response showed that the recipient dogs did not slee p. This research indicated that there are substances that cause sleep known as â€Å"endogenous sleep-promoting substances.† Although the contradiction fact is that the nature of the chemical substances that caused sleep was not identified. Various research groups carried out their research and reported more than thirty endogenous sleep causing substances. In most cases, their physiological relevance was uncertain. Tokyo igakkai Zasshi from Japan published the first Ishimori’s paper entitled â€Å"true cause of sleep _ a hypogenic substance as evidenced in the brain of sleep deprived animals,† in the year 1909. Ishimori made further suggestion that when a person continuously stays a wake, it may also cause accumulation of factors that cause sleep in the brain (Borbà ©ly, 2003). Currently this is referred to as homeostatic sleep regulation. Starling and Bayliss discovered â€Å"scretin† in 1902. This is in relation with the existence of blood-borne messen gers. The new idea of hormonal control of the body functioning became quite fashionable and popular in those days.Advertising Looking for essay on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hans Berger a Germany neurologist in Jena invented an electroencephalogram (EEG) that records brain waves in 1920s. The discovery facilitated the qualitative and quantitative analysis of sleep. Until then, sleep was regarded as an unapproachable phenomenon mainly because it could not be explained scientifically. Kleitman and his coworkers discovered rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in Chicago. This discovery took place in the year 1953 in human beings (Bayliss, 2006). Jouvet and his group in Lyon identified that sleep is never a uniform phenomenon, and it consists of two main different stages. Sleep and wakefulness are the major complex, phenomena. Furthermore, sleep is divided into two parts: the REM and the non-REM sleep can easily be determi ned by examining the animal’s behavior (Berger, 2007). The authors suggest that it needs more accurate measurement of sleep and wake pattern by the use of the electrooculogram (EOG), the recording of the movement of the eye, EEG and (EMG) electromyogram, the recording of the tension of the muscles (Ishimori, 2004). When a normal, healthy person goes to sleep at eleven, the first step in sleeping starts with the NREM and then followed by the REM sleep. This makes a cycle in the sleeping pattern. As in the example, it all begins with the NREM that which progressively becomes deeper. It takes around four to five cycles in which one take about 90 minutes; arousal comes after the concluding REM sleep (Borbà ©ly, 2003). This principle has been in existence for a long time and yet the physiological regulatory mechanisms and the meaning have completely remained a mystery. Alexander Borbely from the Zurich University in Switzerland came up with his two famous process model that show sleep regulation in 1982. He argues that homeostatic process is entirely controlled by sleep pressure or sleep propensity that build up during the wakefulness period. The process is related to the Ishimori’s thus the name Ishimori-Pieron type. On the other hand, a biological or pacemaker clock that is independent of the prior waking and sleep determines the circadian process well known as the sleep-wake sequence during the night and day. This clock is found in the body of the animals. Researches indicate that Ultradian process can generate alternation of REM and NREM sleep (Pià ©on, 2003). From a scientific point of view, the molecular mechanisms that explain the sleep- wake regulation in all the processes have remained unknown.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Biological Basis of Sleep specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Sleep and Prostaglandin Prostaglandins (PGs) are the lipid mediators (Bayliss, 2006 ). There are more than thirty kinds of prostanoids, which are known worldwide. The compounds are distributed extensively in all mammalian organs and tissues. They have a diverse and numerous biological effects on various pathological and physiological activities in the body, and that is why they are sometimes called local or tissue hormones. In 1980s, the scientists discovered the most common prostanoid in the mammalians and mostly the rats and human beings (Berger, 2007). According to their findings, they suggest that PGD2 can be a distinctive component of the brain and might be having some essential function in the organ. They found out that when PGD2 cause sleep to rats when it is microinjected in the brains (Pià ©on, 2003). This was a notable achievement, and they decided to carry on with the study to the molecular mechanism and the physiological significance. Inoue and Honda from Tokyo Japan first designed the bioassay analysis system for sleep. The analysis of the structure i s as follows: through microinjection pump, the chemical PGD2 is injected gradually and constantly through a cannula which is chronically rooted in the 3rd ventricle of a rat . The stages that the rat undergoes to sleep are determined using polygraphic recording of EMG and EEG. Other aspects like food intake, water intake and brain temperature, are monitored and the general behavior of the rat is recorded using a video recorder under infra-red light. The rats are nocturnal animals that sleep most of the daytime, and remain active during the night. The outcome of the research showed that when the PGD was constantly injected in the third ventricle of a rat, the REM and the NREM sleep improved significantly during injection time. PGD2 caused the effect since the other PGs were ineffective (Borbà ©ly, 2003). The experiment mostly depended on the dose and the little picomolar quantity of PGD2 given to per minute it was enough to cause excess sleep to the rat. The quantity of the PGD2 tha t required causing sleep corresponded quite closely to the normal concentration inside the brain (Pià ©on, 2003). The results indicated that pharmacologically high doses are not necessary, and it can imply that the difference in the concentrations of PGDs which ordinarily occur in the brain have the ability to control sleep under physiological circumstances (Berger, 2007).Advertising Looking for essay on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The most important aspect is that the PGD2 stimulated sleep was the same as the physiological sleep just as shown by electrophysiological principle and conduct that involves power spectral data. Contrary to PGE2, the PGD2 is never pyrogenic, but in the real sense, it caused little amounts of reduction in temperature as seen to happen throughout the physiological sleep (Ishimori, 2004). Others experiments, that were carried out, in Japan with monkeys, Mocaca mulatta, indicated clearly that PGD2 could induce natural or physiological sleep (Bayliss, 2006). The sleeping pills and drugs cause quite different sleep from the physiological sleep or the natural one. This shows that PGD2 is a true sleep hormone. Sleep-wake regulation The discoveries in the experiments above explain how sleep can be introduced to an animal from the beginning until it gets into a deep sleep. Then the next part is to identify if the same experiment can apply in the process of waking up the animal from the sleep explaining the wake sleep process. Philos published the brief summary of the experiment in the year 2000. The article observes that the main enzyme that induces sleep is mainly found in the arachnoid membrane and the choroid plexus. After this enzyme is generated, PGD2 is secreted into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and then flows inside the subarachnoid and ventricular spaces. The PDG receptors known as the DPRs are localized on the little area on the ventro-rostral plan of the basal forebrain. PGD2 that circulates in the CFS binds the receptors at the point where the sleep signal is generated (Pià ©on, 2003). The signal passes through the parenchyma brain to the ventrolateral preoptic area VLPO), which is a centre for sleep, across the pia membrane (Ishimori, 2004). The process is mediated through adenosine by A2A adenosine receptor. VPLO cast to the tuberomammilary centre (TMN) (Berger, 2007). The scientists, Oishi and coworkers, found out that adenosine from the TMN cause sleep by h indering the histamnergic structure via A1 receptor (Bayliss, 2006). This implies that PGD2 induce sleep by facilitating the functioning of sleep neurons (Borbà ©ly, 2003). On the same point, wake materials like orexin or PGE2 thruogh the histamine mechanism support an organisms’ wakefulness. According to the scientists, it is their view that the work on wakefulness still requires great attention and it forms the basis of greater basis for more investigation. Stages of sleep Sleep has four main stages. It starts from dozing and continuously progresses into a unusually deep sleep. Stage one The stage is can be termed as a doing stage. In this stage, five percent of the non-REM is spent. It is the transitional phase of the exact light sleep. The birthing rate, and the muscles start to relax and a person can be easily awakened (Berger, 2007). A person may feel a hypnic jerk during this period, the tendency to fall asleep and come back easily. After the rush of activities, the b ody starts to get into a slight slumber. The EEG at this stage is low, and the eye movements are slow. The eyes roll slowly as though closing and opening. Stage two This is the official onset of a consolidated sleep. A bout forty-five percent of the non-REM sleep is covered in this step (Pià ©on, 2003). The eye movement stops then the brain waves enlarge. There are two distinct brain waves in this stage, K-complexes and spindles (Borbà ©ly, 2003). A sleep spindle is a design by which EEG waves that consist of a burst of eleven to fifteen hertz wave that last from five to fifteen seconds. A K complex has quite a high voltage of EEG activity. It consists of a sharp downward constituent then followed by a slow upward constituent. This pattern lasts for over five seconds. Stage three As the sleep advances deeper and deeper, it becomes extremely difficult to arouse someone at this stage. An individual may spend about twelve percent of the non-REM sleep in stage three. Real slow wave sl eep starts with slow and large wave in amalgamate little, faster ones. Stage four This stage is normally characterized by extremely deep sleep. It mostly spends round seventy-five percent non-REM sleep, and thirteen percent of this part is spent in the last stage (Berger, 2007). An individual in the last two stages is more difficult to wake than an individual who is in the first two stages (Bayliss, 2006). People who wake up from sleep normally feel disoriented and groggy for some time. REM sleep This is the period that a person may experience dreams. During this time, there is an irregular breathing, periodic eye flattering, there is also an irregular heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature. This makes a difference between non-REM and REM sleep stages (Ishimori, 2004). In other words, the REM is referred to as paradoxical sleep since brain wave activities is almost similar to a wakened state. During this stage, the brain obstructs all signals towards the muscles and they re main immobile so that the dreams cannot be acted out (Pià ©on, 2003). Most adults spend a round twenty to twenty-five percent of their sleep in REM. Conclusion The biological basis of sleep is dated back to more than one hundred years ago. Kuniomi Ishimori and Heni Pieron laid the foundation of sleep through their research done in Japan. The later physiologists identified that sleep can be classified into two main groups. These are the REM and the non-REM (Bayliss, 2006). All the two parts come in different stages, that is beginning from stage one up to stage four, all the stages follow one another from the beginning of sleep to the time a person wakes up. There is still more room for other scientists to make the research and prove the sleep phenomenon. Top of page Abstract HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION PROSTAGLANDIN (PG) AND SLEEP PROSTAGLANDIN (PG) D SYNTHASE, THE KEY ENZYME IN SLEEP REGULATION MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF SLEEP–WAKE REGULATION BY PGD2 AND E2 ROLE OF PGD2 IN THE CIR CADIAN PROCESS THE ROLE OF PGD2 IN THE HOMEOSTATIC PROCESS HUMAN EXPERIMENTS IN SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CONFLICT OF INTERESTS REFERENCES References Top of page Abstract HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION PROSTAGLANDIN (PG) AND SLEEP PROSTAGLANDIN (PG) D SYNTHASE, THE KEY ENZYME IN SLEEP REGULATION MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF SLEEP–WAKE REGULATION BY PGD2 AND E2 ROLE OF PGD2 IN THE CIRCADIAN PROCESS THE ROLE OF PGD2 IN THE HOMEOSTATIC PROCESS HUMAN EXPERIMENTS IN SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CONFLICT OF INTERESTS REFERENCES Bayliss, W.M. (2006). Starling EH. The mechanism of pancreatic secretion. J. Physiol. Chicago: Harvard Publishers Berger, H. (2007). ÃÅ"ber das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen. J. Psychol. Neurol. Chicago: Harvard Publishers Borbà ©ly, A.A. (2003). Two process model of sleep regulation. Hum. Neurobiol. New York: Macmillan Publishers Ishimori, K. (2004). True cause of sleep – a hypnogenic substance as evidenced in the brain of sleep-deprived animals. Tokyo: Igakka i Zasshi. Pià ©on, H. (2003). Le problà ©me physiologique du sommeil. Paris: Masson et cie. This essay on The Biological Basis of Sleep was written and submitted by user Amelie A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The notion

The notion that man could fly or someday would be able to achieve flight has long since been an idea of man for literally centuries. As early as 400 BC, a Greek scholar by the name of Archytas built a wooden pigeon that moved through the air. Approximately 100 years later the Chinese developed kites, which are a form of gliders, which much later in history, allowed humans to fly in them (1). Mans first attempts at flight later progressed with designs by Leonardo daVinci. DaVinci's design was based on a flapping type wing, Givanni Borelli stated that a human's muscles were far to weak to flap the large surfaces needed to obtain flight and that the physical make up of humans would not be that which could be used in flight with such inventions. Glider flights later came to be through the inventions of a British inventor by the name of George Cayley. Cayley founded the study of Aerodynamics and was the first to suggest a fixed wing aircraft with a propeller. Cayley's invention led Otto Lilienthal to gliders that could be piloted by men up to heights of 100 feet or more, consequently Lilienthal was killed by his own invention during a flight. He broke his spine, and he died a day later in a Berlin hospital. There is some feeling that had Lilienthal lived, he might have beaten the Wright brothers to the punch. Although many believe that the Wright brothers were the firs! t to achieve flight there were those before them that actually made attempts at powered flight. William Henderson patented plans for the first plane with a engine, fixed wings and a propeller, coincidentally after one try he gave up. Inventors following Henderson came up with they're own variations of his design of which by all accounts failed, although they were airborne for a short duration they never achieved sustained flight. Since the early inventions of flight the technological advances along with the better understanding of aerodynamics has allowed airplanes t...

Rating Sites Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rating Sites - Essay Example So the reader has to use his own intelligence and judge for himself if the posting is genuine or false. Pfeiffer concludes that as the traffic to these rating cites increase, we will be forced to think of closing the anonymous rating sites. Although the rating sites can be abused, they can also give us useful information. Instead of trying to close the rating sites, we should do something to make the rating sites more responsible and truthful. According to Pfeiffer, the phenomenal success of sites like RateMyProfessor.com and RateMyTeacher .com, other rating sites sprang up, which rate different things. There is now a huge network of online forums which rate professionals like doctors and lawyers, and services like car repair, plumber service and childcare centers. Even entertainment centers like nightclubs are rated. All the rating can be done anonymously. The public gets enormous amount of information about any service they want. This helps them to choose a lawyer or doctor, or a service provider, which suit them. The sites may be giving genuine information, or just be misleading the users. The critics of the system say that clients who are angry or dissatisfied can post a malicious comment about any person or service. Similarly, bad tempered students can post an ugly comment on the teacher. Envious colleagues and estranged friends or relatives can post malicious comments. Malicious persons might post comments suggesting malpractice, about a lawyer or doctor. According to Professor Michael Rustad of Suffolk University Law School, who specializes in Internet Law, many of the rating sites are just platforms for getting rid of their strong emotions, for some persons. Rustad further states that "they are not random samples of how this professor or lawyer or doctor is doing." On the other hand, the person concerned can post excellent comments on himself. Since the sites are anonymous, there is no accountability. Fraud can be detected and removed Internet entrepreneur Bob Nicholson recognizes the problem of abuse of the sites. Calling the rating cites "magnets of abuse", he says that internet users should take the information they get from these sites "for what it's worth." If there are many comments coming from the same Internet address, it points to fraud, where a doctor or lawyer might be generating the comments himself. Similarly, if there are many comments which use similar sentences or phrases, it would mean that the same person is writing the comments in different names. The sites screen such multiple ratings. Online service providers are protected from being dragged into lawsuits over materials posted by third parties, by the Federal Communications Decency Act. Most of the rating sites bar only obscene and racist comments, and allow everything else. The online users are sure of anonymity on the Internet. It is only because of the anonymity that we have useful sites such as Craig's List and Amazon's user feedback. If there is no anonymity for the user, the nature of Internet itself would change. Kurt Opsahl, a staff attorney for the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a nonprofit San Francisco digital rights group, argues that if some people think that they have been misrepresented, they can